Ancient Jordan
The most prominent early roots of Jordan , as an independent state, can be traced to the Kingdom of Petra, which was founded by the Nabataeans(Arabic: الأنباط, Al-Anbāt) an ancient Semitic people from Arabia who developed the North Arabic Script that evolved into the Modern Arabic script. During its glory, the Nabataean Kingdom controlled regional trade routes by dominating a large area southwest of the fertile crescent, which included the whole of modern Jordan extending from Syria in the North to the northernArabian Peninsula in the south. As a result, Petra enjoyed independence, prosperity and wealth for hundreds of years until it was absorbed by the Roman Empire which was still expanding in 100 A.D.
Jordan also witnessed many other smaller ancient kingdoms having sovereignty for centuries, in addition to the Nabataeans. These included the Kingdom of Edom, the Kingdom of Ammon, the Kingdom of Moab, theKingdom of Judah, and the Hasmonean Kingdom of the Maccabees, which are all mentioned in the Bibleand other ancient Near Eastern documents.[39]
During the Greco-Roman period of influence, a number of semi-independent city-states also developed in Jordan under the umbrella of the Decapolis including: Gerasa (Jerash), Philadelphia (Amman), Raphana(Abila), Dion (Capitolias), Gadara (Umm Qays), and Pella (Irbid).
Later, Jordan became part of the Arabic Islamic Empire across its different Caliphates stages including Rashidun Empire, Umayyad Empire andAbbasid Empire. After the decline of the Abbasid, Jordan was ruled by several conflicting powers including the Mongols, the Crusaders, theAyyubids and the Mamluks until it became part of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
[edit]Modern Jordan
With the break-up of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I, the League of Nations and the occupying powers chose to redraw the borders of the Middle East. The ensuing decisions, most notably the Sykes–Picot Agreement gave birth to the French Mandate of Syria andBritish Mandate of Palestine. More than 76% of the British Mandate of Palestine was east of the Jordan river and was known as "Transjordan".
The country was called "Transjordan", under British supervision until after World War II. In 1946, the British requested that the United Nationsapprove an end to British Mandate rule in Transjordan. Following this approval, the Transjordanian Parliament proclaimed King Abdullah as the first ruler of the Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan. Abdullah I continued to rule until a Palestinian Arab assassinated him in 1951 as he was departing from the al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.
During the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, Jordan captured the area of Cisjordan now called the West Bank, which it continued to control in accordance with the 1949 Armistice Agreements. Abdullah thereupon took the title King of Jordan, and he officially changed the country's name to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in April 1949. The following year he annexed the West Bank, but only two countries recognized this annexation: Britain and Pakistan.[40][41]


Approximate image showing the land exchanged between Jordan (green) and Saudi Arabia (red).


The Jordan salient. June 5–7 during the Six Day War.


Jordanian parachute flares illuminate Jerusalem during the Arab-Israeli war in 1948
Jordan and Iraq united in 1958 to form the Arab Federation of Iraq and Jordan under the Hashemite crowns in Amman and Baghdad. A coup later that year would end the union with the execution of the Hashemite crown in Baghdad. The United Arab Republic consisting of Egypt, Syria, and Yemen quickly moved to antagonize Jordan's young King Hussein with Soviet support. King Hussein asked for British and American assistance. The RAF and the USAF was sent to patrol Jordanian airspace and British troops were deployed in Amman. The UAR backed off but then turned to Lebanon. The Americans would later be deployed inBeirut to support Lebanon's pro-Western government.
In 1965, there was an exchange of land between Saudi Arabia and Jordan. Jordan gave up a large area of inland desert in return for a small piece of sea-shore near Aqaba.
Jordan signed a military pact with Egypt in May 1967, and following an Israeli air attack on Egypt in June 1967, Egypt, Jordan, Syria and Iraq continued the Six Day War against Israel. During the war, Israel captured the West Bank and East Jerusalem. In 1988, Jordan renounced all claims to the territory now occupied by Israel but its 1994 treaty with Israel allowed for a continuing Jordanian role in Muslim and Christian holy places in Jerusalem. The severance of administrative ties with the West Bank halted the Jordanian government's paying of civil servants and public sectoremployees' salaries in the West Bank.
The period following the 1967 war saw an upsurge in the activity and numbers of Arab Palestinian paramilitary elements (fedayeen) within the state of Jordan. These distinct, armed militias were becoming a "state within a state", threatening Jordan's rule of law. King Hussein's armed forces targeted the fedayeen, and open fighting erupted in June 1970. The battle in which Palestinian fighters from various Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) groups were expelled from Jordan is commonly known as Black September.
The heaviest fighting occurred in northern Jordan and Amman. In the ensuing heavy fighting, a Syrian tank force invaded northern Jordan to back the fedayeen fighters, but subsequently retreated. King Husseinurgently asked the United States, Great Britain and Israel to intervene against Syria. Consequently, Israel performed mock air strikes on the Syrian column at the Americans' request. Soon after, Syrian President Nureddin al-Atassi, ordered a hasty retreat from Jordanian soil.[42][43][44]By September 22, Arab foreign ministers meeting in Cairo arranged a cease-fire beginning the following day. However, sporadic violence continued until Jordanian forces, led by Habis Al-Majali, with the help of Iraqi forces,[45] won a decisive victory over the fedayeen on July 1971, expelling them, and ultimately the PLO's Yasser Arafat, from Jordan.
At the Rabat summit conference in 1974, Jordan was now in a more secure position to agree, along with the rest of the Arab League, that the PLO was the "sole legitimate representative of the [Arab] Palestinian people", thereby relinquishing to that organization its role as representative of the West Bank.
In 1973, allied Arab League forces attacked Israel in the Yom Kippur War, and fighting occurred along the 1967 Jordan River cease-fire line. Jordan sent a brigade to Syria to attack Israeli units on Syrian territory but did not engage Israeli forces from Jordanian territory.
Although Jordan did not directly participate in the Gulf War of 1990–91, following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, King Hussein was accused of supporting Saddam Hussein when he attempted to persuade Saddam Hussein to withdraw from Kuwait. As a result of the alleged support, the United States and Arab countries cut off monetary aid to Jordan, and 700,000 Jordanians who had been working in Arab countries were forced to return to Jordan. In addition, millions of Iraqi refugees fled to Jordan placing a strain on the country's social services.
In 1991, Jordan agreed, along with Syria, Lebanon, and Arab Palestinian fedayeen representatives, to participate in direct peace negotiations with Israel at the Madrid Conference, sponsored by the U.S. and Russia. It negotiated an end to hostilities with Israel and signed a declaration to that effect on 25 July 1994 (see Washington Declaration). As a result, an Israeli-Jordanian peace treaty was concluded on 26 October 1994. King Hussein was later honored when his picture appeared on an Israeli postage stamp in recognition of the good relations he established with his neighbor. Since the signing of the peace treaty with Israel, the United States not only contributes hundreds of millions of dollars in an annual foreign aid stipend to Jordan, but also has allowed it to establish a free trade zone in which to manufacture goods that will enter the US without paying the usual import taxes as long as a percentage of the material used in them is purchased in Israel.
King Hussein died in 1999. His son, King Abdullah II succeeded him.
Following the outbreak of fighting between Israel and Palestinians in the Second Intifada in September 2000, the Jordanian government offered its offices to both parties. Jordan has since sought to remain at peace with all of its neighbors. Particularly good relations have been maintained between the Jordanian royal family and Israel, with the Jordanian government frequently dispersing rallies and jailing demonstrators protesting against Israeli actions. The government also censors anti-Israeli views from the Jordanian news media.
The last major strain in Jordan's relations with Israel occurred in September, 1997, when two Israeli agents entered Jordan using Canadian passports and poisoned Khaled Meshal, a senior leader of the Palestinian group Hamas. Under threat of cutting off diplomatic relations, King Hussein forced Israel to provide an antidote to the poison and to release dozens of Jordanians and Palestinians from its prisons, including the spiritual leader of Hamas, Sheikh Ahmed Yassin. Sheikh Yassin was later assassinated by Israel in a targeted bombing in early 2004 in the West Bank.
On 9 November 2005 Jordan experienced three simultaneous terrorist bombings at hotels in Amman. At least 57 people died and 115 were wounded. "Al-Qaeda in Iraq", a group led by terrorist Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, a native Jordanian, claimed responsibility.
Recently, Jordan has revoked the citizenship of thousands of Palestinians in an attempt to thwart any attempt by Israel of permanetly re-settling West Bank Palestinians in Jordan. West Bank Palestinians with family in Jordan or with previous Jordanian citizenship would be issued yellow cards which guaranteed them all the rights of Jordanian citizenship. Palestinians working for the Palestinian Authority or the PLO were among those who have had their Jordanian passports taken from them, in addition to anyone who did not serve in the Jordanian army. Palestinians living in Jordan with family in the West Bank would also be issued yellow cards. All other Palestinians wishing such Jordanian papers would be issued a green card which would facilitate travel into Jordan and give them temporary Jordanian passports in order to make travel easier. In addition, no Palestinians from the Gaza Strip are given any such privileges because Jordanian authority never extended into the Gaza Strip.[46]
[edit]Geography


Map of Jordan
Main article: Geography of Jordan


Mount Nebo is an elevated ridge that is approximately 817 meteres (2680 feet) above sea level in Western Jordan.
Jordan is a Southwest Asian country, bordered by Syria to the north, Iraq to the northeast, Saudi Arabia to the east and south andIsrael to the west. All these border lines add up to 1,619 km (1,006 mi). The Gulf of Aqaba and the Dead Sea also touch the country, and thus Jordan has a coastline of 26 km (16 mi).
Jordan consists of arid forest plateau in the east irrigated by oasis and seasonal water streams, with highland area in the west of arable land and Mediterranean evergreen forestry. The Great Rift Valley of the Jordan River separates Jordan, the west bank and Israel. The highest point in the country is Jabal Umm al Dami, it is 1,854 m (6,083 ft) above sea level, its top is also covered with snow, while the lowest is the Dead Sea -420 m (−1,378 ft). Jordan is part of a region considered to be "thecradle of civilization", the Levant region of the Fertile Crescent.
Major cities include the capital Amman in the northwest, Irbid and Az Zarqa, both in the north. Madaba, Karak and Aqaba in the south.
The climate in Jordan is semidry in summer with average temperature in the mid-30°C (mid-90°F) and relatively cold in winter averaging around −1.3 °C (30 °F). The western part of the country receives greater precipitation during the winter season from November to March and snowfall in Amman (756 m (2,480 ft) ~ 1,280 m (4,199 ft) above sea-level) and Western Heights of 500 m (1,640 ft). Excluding the rift valley the rest of the country is entirely above 300 m (984 ft)(SL).[47]
[edit]Climate


Snow in Amman
The major characteristic of the climate is humid from November to March and semi dry weather for the rest of the year. With hot, dry, uniform summers and cool, freezing variable winters during which practically all of the precipitation occurs, the country has a Mediterranean-style climate. In general, the farther inland from the Mediterranean Sea a given part of the country lies, the greater are the seasonal contrasts in temperature and the less rainfall. Atmospheric pressures during the summer months are relatively uniform, whereas the winter months bring a succession of marked low pressure areas and accompanying cold fronts. These cyclonic disturbances generally move eastward from over the Mediterranean Sea several times a month and result in sporadic precipitation.
Most of the East Bank receives less than 620 mm of rain a year and may be classified as a semi dry region. Where the ground rises to form the highlands east of the Jordan Valley, precipitation increases to around 300 mm in the south and 500 or more mm in the north. The Jordan Valley, lying in the lee of high ground on the West Bank, forms a narrow climatic zone that annually receives up to 900 mm of rain in the northern reaches; rain dwindles to less than 120 mm at the head of theDead Sea.


Spring in Amman
The country's long summer reaches a peak during August. January is usually the coldest month. The fairly wide ranges of temperature during a twenty-four-hour period are greatest during the summer months and have a tendency to increase with higher elevation and distance from the Mediterranean seacoast. Daytime temperatures during the summer months frequently exceed 29 °C and average about 32 °C. In contrast, the winter months—September to March—bring moderately cool and sometimes very cold weather, averaging about 3.2 °C. Except in the rift depression, frost is fairly common during the winter, it may take the form of snow at the higher elevations of the north western highlands. Usually it snows a couple of times in the winter in northern Jordan.
For a month or so before and after the summer dry season, hot, dry air from the desert, drawn by low pressure, produces strong winds from the south or southeast that sometimes reach gale force. Known in the Middle East by various names, including the khamsin, this dry, sirocco-style wind is usually accompanied by great dust clouds. Its onset is heralded by a hazy sky, a fallingbarometer, and a drop in relative humidity to about 10 percent. Within a few hours there may be a 10 °C to 15 °C rise in temperature. These windstorms ordinarily last a day or so, cause much discomfort, and destroy crops by desiccating them.
The shamal, another wind of some significance, comes from the north or northwest, generally at intervals between June and September. Remarkably steady during daytime hours but becoming a breeze at night, the shammal may blow for as long as nine days out of ten and then repeat the process. It originates as a dry continental mass of polar air that is warmed as it passes over the Eurasian landmass. The dryness allows intense heating of the Earth's surface by the sun, resulting in high daytime temperatures that moderate after sunset.
[edit]Administrative divisions
Main articles: Governorates of Jordan and Nahias of Jordan
Administratively, Jordan is divided into 12 provinces called governorates, each headed by a governor appointed by the king. They are the sole authorities for all government departments and development projects in their respective areas. The Governorates are:
Province Population (2008 est.)[48]
Capital city Population (Metropolitan, 2008 est)[49]

Ajlun Governorate
118,496 Ajlun
8,161
Amman Governorate
1,939,405 Amman
1,135,733
Aqaba Governorate
107,115 Aqaba
95,408
Balqa Governorate
349,580 As-Salt
87,778
Irbid Governorate
950,700 Irbid
650,000
Jerash Governorate
156,680 Jerash
39,540
Karak Governorate
214,225 Karak
22,580
Ma'an Governorate
103,920 Ma'an
30,050
Madaba Governorate
135,890 Madaba
83,180
Mafraq Governorate
245,670 Mafraq
56,340
Tafilah Governorate
81,000 Tafilah

Zarqa Governorate
838,250 Zarqa
447,880
The Governorates are subdivided into approximately fifty-two nahiyas.
[edit]Demographics


Graph showing the population of Jordan from 1960 to 2005.
Main article: Demographics of Jordan
The Jordan National Census for the year 2004, which was released on October 1 of the same year, gave the following results:
1. As of October 1 2004, Jordan had a population of 5,100,981. The census estimated that there are another 190,000 who were not counted (for being out of the country at the time the census was taken, or did not turn in their forms).
2. The census showed that the national growth rate was 2.5% (at maximum) compared to 3.3% of the 1994 census.
3. The census of 2004 also shows that males made up 51.5% of Jordan's population (2,628,717). Females: 2,472,264 (48.5%).
4. Jordanian citizens made up 93% of the population (4,750,463), while non Jordanians made up 7% (349,933). However, it is estimated that most of those who did not turn in their forms were immigrants from neighboring countries, or non Arabic-speaking foreigners.
5. There were 946,000 families in Jordan in 2004, with an average of 5.3 persons/family (compared to 6 persons/family for the census of 1994).[50] The next census is scheduled to take place in 2014.
During the years 2004–2007, Jordan saw a rapid increase in its population due to the heavy migration of Iraqi refugees, an independent census carried in 2007, estimated that there are 700,000 Iraqis residing in Jordan. Most estimates put the population of Jordan slightly over 6,000,000 as of the year 2007.
Approximately 95 to 98% of Jordan's population are "Arabs", that is, Arabic-speaking Arab-identified people. Among "Arabs", 60 to 80% are of Palestinian and Syrian origin, only a minority are indigenous Jordanians. Of the non-Arab population, most are Circassians, Chechens,Armenians, Kurds, and Gypsies, which have all maintained separate ethic identities, but have integrated into mainstream Jordanian and Arab culture.[51][52]
The number of Lebanese permanently settling in Jordan since the 2006 Lebanon War has not been established, and is estimated to be very little. According to Labour Ministry figures, the number of guest workers in the country now stands just over 300,000, most are Egyptians who makeup 227,000 of the foreign labor, and the remaining 36,150 workers are mostly from Bangladesh, China, Sri Lanka and India. Since the Iraq War many Christians (Assyrians and Chaldeans) from Iraq have settled permanently or temporarily in Jordan.
About 92% of Jordanians are Muslims. The majority are Sunni.
Jordanian Christians permanently residing in Jordan form approximately 6% of the population and are allocated respective seats in parliament (The Department of Statistics released no information about the religion distribution from the census of 2004). Most Jordanian Christians belong to the Greek Orthodox faith (locally called "Ruum Urthudux" in Arabic). The remainder include Roman Catholics (locally called "Lateen"), the Eastern Catholic Melkites (locally called "Ruum Katoleek") and distinct from other "Western Catholics", as well as various Protestant denominations including Baptists. Most Jordanian Christians are indigenous Arabs, hold services in the Arabic language, and share the culture of Jordan and the broader East Mediterranean Levantine Arab Identity. Expatriate Christians in Jordan include many nationalities, as evinced, for example, by some Catholic masses being celebrated in English, French, Italian, Spanish, Tagalog and Sinhala, and Iraqi dialects of Arabic.
Other Jordanians belonging to religious minorities include adherents to the Druze and Bahá'í Faith. The Druze are mainly located in the EasternOasis Town of Azraq and the city of Zarka, while the Village of Adassiyeh bordering the Jordan Valley is home to Jordan's Bahá'í community.
The official language is Arabic, but English is used widely in commerce and government and among educated people. Arabic and English are obligatory learning at public and private schools. French is taught at some public and private schools but is not obligatory. However, a vibrantFrancophone community has emerged in modern Jordan.[citation needed] Radio Jordan offers radio services in Arabic, English and French.
A portion of the people are registered as Palestinian refugees and displaced persons reside in Jordan, most as citizens. Since 2003 many Iraqis fleeing the Iraq War have settled in Jordan; latest estimates indicate between 700,000 and 1.7 million Iraqis living in Jordan;[53] mainly in Amman, the capital.[54]
[edit]Politics


King Abdullah II, Jordanian Head of State.
Main article: Politics of Jordan


Queen Rania in the Yellow Oval Room in the White House Residence.
Jordan's most executive power is the King although it is aconstitutional monarchy with a representative government. The King traditionally has held substantial power, however the democratically-elected Parliament holds significant influence and power in national governance.
[edit]Constitution
Jordan is a constitutional monarchy based on the constitutionpromulgated on 8 January 1952. Executive authority is vested in the king and his council of ministers. The king signs and executes all laws. His veto power may be overridden by a two-thirds vote of both houses of the National Assembly. He appoints and may dismiss all judges by decree, approves amendments to the constitution, declares war, and commands the armed forces. Cabinet decisions, court judgments, and the national currency are issued in his name. The council of ministers, led by a prime minister, is appointed by the king, who may dismiss other cabinet members at the prime minister's request. The cabinet is responsible to the Chamber of Deputies on matters of general policy and can be forced to resign by a 50% or more of vote of "no confidence" by that body.
The constitution provides for three categories of courts: civil, religious, and special. Administratively, Jordan is divided into twelve governorates, each headed by a governor appointed by the king. They are the sole authorities for all government departments and development projects in their respective areas.
[edit]Legal system and legislation
Jordan's legal system is based on Islamic law and French codes. Judicial review of legislative acts occurs in a special High Tribunal. It has not accepted compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction.
Jordan has multi-party politics. There are over 30 political parties in the Jordan from a wide range of positions ranging from extreme left (Jordanian Communist Party) to extreme right (Islamic Action Front).
Article 97 of Jordan’s constitution guarantees the independence of the judicial branch, clearly stating that judges are 'subject to no authority but that of the law.' While the king must approve the appointment and dismissal of judges, in practice these are supervised by the Higher Judicial Council.
The Jordanian legal system draws upon civil traditions as well as Islamic law and custom. Article 99 of the Constitution divides the courts into three categories: civil, religious and special. The civil courts deal with civil and criminal matters in accordance with the law, and they have jurisdiction over all persons in all matters, civil and criminal, including cases brought against the government. The civil courts include Magistrate Courts, Courts of First Instance, Courts of Appeal, High Administrative Courts and the Supreme Court.
The religious courts include shari’a (Islamic law) courts and the tribunals of other religious communities, namely those of the Christian minority. Religious courts have primary and appellate courts and deal only with matters involving personal law such as marriage, divorce, inheritance and child custody. Shari’a courts also have jurisdiction over matters pertaining to the Islamic waqfs. In cases involving parties of different religions, regular courts have jurisdiction.[55]
Specialized courts involve various bodies. One such body is the Supreme Council which will interpret the Constitution if requested by either the National Assembly or the prime minister, according to Dew et al.: "...such courts are usually created in areas that the legislator deems should be governed by specialized courts with more experience and knowledge in specific matters than other regular courts."[56] Other examples of special courts include the Court of Income Tax and the Highest Court of Felonies.
The strictly military courts of the martial law period have been abolished and replaced with a State Security Court, which is composed of both military and civilian judges. The court tries both military and civilians and its jurisdiction includes offenses against the external and internal security of the state as well as drug-related and other offenses. The findings of this court are subject to appeal before the High Court.
Both Article 102 of the Constitution and the Code of Criminal Procedure mandate the right of an accused person to a lawyer of his or her own choice during the investigation and trial period. Article 22 of the Code of Criminal Procedure also provides that a lawyer has the right to attend the interrogation unless the investigation is confidential or urgent. Article 28 of the Code of Criminal Procedure declares that detainees should be brought before a court within 48 hours of arrest, even in special security cases, giving them an opportunity to have full access to legal counsel.[55]
Prior to 2002 Jordan’s legal system only allowed men to file for divorce, however, during this year the first Jordanian woman successfully filed for divorce;[57] this was made possible from a proposal by a royal human rights commission which had been established by King Abdullah who had vowed to improve the status of women in Jordan.
Despite being traditionally dominated by men the number of women involved as lawyers in the Jordan legal system has been increasing. As of mid-2006 Jordan had 1,284 female lawyers, out of a total number of 6,915, and 35 female judges from a total of 630. In Jordan, between 15 and 20 women are murdered annually in the name of "honour" and at least eight such killings have been reported in 2008, according to Jordanian authorities. In 2007 17 such murders were recorded.
[edit]Kings of Jordan and political events
King Abdullah I ruled Jordan after independence from Britain. After the assassination of King Abdullah I in 1951, his son King Talal ruled briefly. King Talal's major accomplishment was the Jordanian constitution. King Talal was removed from the throne in 1952 due to mental illness. At that time his son, Hussein, was too young to rule, and hence a committee ruled over Jordan.
After Hussein reached 18, he ruled Jordan as king from 1953 to 1999, surviving a number of challenges to his rule, drawing on the loyalty of his military, and serving as a symbol of unity and stability for both the Bedouin-related and Palestinian communities in Jordan. King Hussein endedmartial law in 1991 and legalized political parties in 1992. In 1989 and 1993, Jordan held free and fair parliamentary elections. Controversial changes in the election law led Islamist parties to boycott the 1997 elections.
King Abdullah II succeeded his father Hussein following the latter's death in February 1999. Abdullah moved quickly to reaffirm Jordan's peace treaty with Israel and its relations with the United States. Abdullah, during the first year in power, refocused the government's agenda on economic reform.
Jordan's continuing structural economic difficulties, burgeoning population, and more open political environment led to the emergence of a variety of political parties. Moving toward greater independence, Jordan's parliament has investigated corruption charges against several regime figures and has become the major forum in which differing political views, including those of political Islamists, are expressed. While the King remains the ultimate authority in Jordan, the parliament plays an important role.
[edit]Religion
Religion in Jordan[51]

Religion Percent
Sunni Muslims
  92%
Christian
  6%
Shia Muslims, Druze
  2%

Main article: Religion in Jordan


The Abu Darweesh Mosque was built in 1961 by theCircassian community which came to settle in Amman


A Greek Orthodox Church in Amman
Jordan's official religion is Islam and Islamic studies are offered to students but are not mandatory to non-Muslim students. Jordan is an advocate for religious freedom in the region and the world. Religious officials have no part in the government and are not allowed to interfere in the state's affairs. People may be tried in religious courts if they wish, but civil courts are the norm.
The population consists of 92 percent Sunni Muslims, 6 percent Christian (majority Greek Orthodox, but some Greek Catholics (Melkites) and Roman Catholics, Syrian Orthodox, Coptic Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox, and Protestant denominations), and 2 percent other (several small Shia Muslim and Druze populations).[51]
Christians made up 30% of the Jordanian population in 1950.[58] However, emigrationto Europe, Canada and the United Statesand lower birth rates compared to Muslims has significantly decreased the ratio of the Christian population.[58]
[edit]Parliament
Main article: Parliament of Jordan
The 1952 Constitution provided for the establishment of the bicameral Jordanian National Assembly (‘Majlis al-Umma’). The Parliament consists of two Chambers: The Chamber of Deputies (‘Majlis al-Nuwaab’) and the Senate (‘Majlis al-Aayan’; literally, ‘Assembly of Notables’). The Senate has 55 Senators, all of whom are directly appointed by the King,[59] whilst the Chamber of Deputies/House of Representatives has 80 elected members representing 12 constituencies. Of the 80 members of the Lower Chamber, 71 must be Muslim and 9 Christians, with six seats held back specifically for women. The Constitution ensures that the Senate cannot be more than half the size of the Chamber of Deputies.
The constitution does not provide a strong system of checks and balances within which the Jordanian Parliament can assert its role in relationship to the monarch. During the suspension of Parliament between 2001 and 2003, the scope of King Abdullah II’s power was demonstrated with the passing of 110 temporary laws. Two of such laws dealt with election law and were seen to reduce the power of Parliament.[60][61]
[edit]Term
Senators have terms of four years and are appointed by the King and can be reappointed. Prospective Senators must be at least forty years old and have held senior positions in either the government or military. Appointed Senators have included former Prime Ministers and Members of the Chamber of Deputies. Deputies are elected to also serve a four year term. Candidates must be older than thirty-five, cannot have blood ties to the King, and must not have any financial interests in government contracts.[62]
[edit]Political parties
The reforms of 1989 legalized political parties and opposition movements. The result is over 30 political parties, but the only political party that plays a role in the legislature is the Islamic Action Front (IAF). Political parties can be seen to represent four sections: Islamists, leftists, Arab nationalists and liberals. Some other political parties in Jordan including the Jordanian Arab Democratic Party, Jordanian Socialist Party, and Muslim Centre Party, but these have little impact on the political process.
[edit]Immigration


The growing Iraqi Chaldean Catholic population in Jordan.
Jordan has one of the highest immigration rates in the world. Iraqis, Palestinians, Lebanese, Syrians,Egyptians, Armenians, Circassians, Iranians, Turks, and Chechens are just some of the nationalities that make up Jordan's diverse background. In addition, there are several hundreds of thousands migrant workers from Indonesia, the Phillipines, China, India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh employed in Jordanian QIZs, households, and construction projects. Ethnic Jordanians only make up about a quarter of the population with some even estimating it at less. Jordan's political stability, ethnic and religious toleration, peace with all its neighbors, and a higher quality of life make Jordan a favourite destination for refugees and political asylum seekers.
[edit]Human rights
Main article: Human rights in Jordan
According to King Hussein's website, Jordan "has consistently been cited by Amnesty International as the country with the best human rights record in the region."[63] However, there are still several issues that continue to cause some concern for human rights watchdogs like administrative detention, so called "honour killings", and slow democratic reforms. Jordan ranked as "Not Free" in Freedom House's 2008 Press Freedom rankings[64]. Jordan’s civil liberties and political rights ranked 5.0 "Partly Free" near "Not Free" in Freedom House's 2009 rankings, a drop from last year. Jordan has the 5th freest press in the Arab World out of 21 countries. [65][66]. The Kingdom is committed to freedom of expression and choice. Measured by the Annual Freedom House survey, Jordan ranks third in the Middle East on major areas of freedom, from investment to expression.[67]
Also, Jordan enjoys transparent governance, ranking 4th among Arab countries in the 2007 Corruption Perceptions Index issued by Transparency International, after Qatar, UAE and Bahrain. Further efforts to enhance its position include ratifying the United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) where Jordan emerged as a regional leader in spearheading efforts to promote the UNCAC and its implementation.[68]
Amnesty International showed concern about the practices of torture and ill-treatment in Jordan, "as well as the link between torture, unfair trials, and the death penalty."[69] Amnesty International also showed concern about death-penalty rulings in Jordan "because there is a pattern of death sentences, and sometimes executions, occurring as a result of unfair trials where confessions extracted under torture are used as evidence against the defendants".[69] According to the same Amnesty International report, there is a pattern of suppression of freedom of expression and association in Jordan.[69]
According to Amnesty, "The practice of killing women and girls by husbands or family members because they have allegedly engaged in behavior that goes against social norms (so-called "honor killings") continues to be a problem in Jordan; with an average of 20 Jordanian women killed each year. Measures calling for stricter punishment for those committing honor killings have failed to be enacted"[69] Three years ago, the government abolished the section of the penal code that allowed those convicted of honor killings to receive sentences as lenient as six months in prison. The judiciary has not, however, put them on an equal footing with other homicides, which are punishable by up to 15 years in jail. Honor crime offenders typically get anywhere between seven-and-a-half years in jail to commuted sentences after being pardoned by the slain woman's parents, which is usually their own family.[70] Recently, the Judicial Ministry established a special tribunal for honor crimes that would speed up trials which would often take up to 18 months.[71]
Amnesty also reported on the abuse of foreign domestic workers in Jordan. These violations surfaced after hundreds of Filipino maids fled to their embassy to escape abuse. It said that many workers out of a total of 70.000 suffer human rights violations.[69] In August of 2009 a new law aimed at improving the rights of domestic workers was passed by the cabinet. The reported improvements include religious freedom, healthcare, 10-hour workdays, one contact per month with the worker's homeland at the employer's expense, 14 day paid annual leave and 14 days of paid sick leave per year.
The Jordanian Constitution provides for the freedom to practice one's religion in accordance with the customs in the Kingdom, unless they violate public order or morality. Jordan's state religion is Islam. The Government bans conversion from Islam and efforts to proselytize Muslims.
Religious freedom in Jordan declined in 2008. The Jordanian government's handling of apostasy cases, expulsion of approximately thirty foreign Christian religious workers, and various cases of individual and organizational harassment based on religious beliefs all contributed to the decline. Members of unrecognized religious groups and converts from Islam face legal discrimination and risk the loss of civil rights, including threats to them and/or family. Shari'a courts have the authority to prosecute proselytizers and converts from Islam. In February of 2008, the government began enforcing an ordinance which "makes proselytizing a criminal offense,". The ordinance mandates "that anyone who makes, stores or distributes printed documents, or audiovisual materials with the intent of 'shaking the faith' of a Muslim may face a maximum of five years' imprisonment" and a fine equivalent to 7,100 dollars.
There were several problems pertaining to religious freedom in Jordan. These problems were mainly faced by Christians and other non-Muslims and included, mass deportation, annulling of marriages, the taking to court without legal representation, the denial of re-entry into Jordan after having been outside the country, the denial of residency renewal, the detention of various Christians and non-Muslims, one of which was detained for 20 hours at Queen Alia International Airport,and the closing of several Churches in the country.[72]
Despite these cases, Christians are well integrated into the Kingdom’s political and economic landscapes. At least one Christian holds a ministerial post in every government, eight seats in the 110-seat Parliament, and a similar number is appointed to the Upper House by the King. They serve in the military, many have high positions in the army, and they have established good relations with the royal family. [73]
[edit]Economy


The Four Seasons hotel in Amman, Jordan'scapital.
Main article: Economy of Jordan
Jordan is a small country with limited natural resources. The country is currently exploring ways to expand its limited water supply and use its existing water resources more efficiently, including through regional cooperation. The country depends on external sources for the majority of its energy requirements. During the 1990s, its crude petroleum needs were met through imports from Iraq and neighboring countries. Since early 2003, oil has been provided by some Gulf Cooperation Council member countries. In addition, the Arab Gas Pipeline fromEgypt to the southern port city of Aqaba was completed in 2003. The government plans to extend this pipeline north to the Amman area and beyond. Since 2000, exports of light manufactured products, principally textiles and garments manufactured in the Qualifying Industrial Zones (QIZ) that enter the United States tariff and quota free, have been driving economic growth. Jordan exported €5.6 million ($6.9 million) in goods to the U.S. in 1997, when two-way trade was €321 million ($395 million); it exported €538 million ($661 million) in 2002 with two-way trade at €855 million ($1.05 billion). Similar growth in exports to the United States under the bilateral US-Jordan Free Trade Agreement that went into effect in December 2001, to the European Union under the bilateral Association Agreement, and to countries in the region, holds considerable promise for diversifying Jordan's economy away from its traditional reliance on exports of phosphates and potash, overseas remittances, and foreign aid. The government has emphasized the information technology (IT) and tourism sectors as other promising growth sectors. The low tax and low regulation Aqaba Special Economic Zone (ASEZA) is considered a model of a government-provided framework for private sector-led economic growth.


Location of Qualifying Industrial Zones in Jordan
Since King Abdullah II's accession to the throne in 1999, liberal economic policies have been introduced which has resulted in a boom lasting for a decade continuing even through 2009. Jordan is now one of the freest and most competitive economies in the Middle East scoring higher than the United Arab Emiratesand Lebanon in the 2009 Heritage Foundation Index. Jordan's developed and modern banking sector is becoming the investment destination of choice due to its conservative bank policies that helped Jordan escape the worst of the global financial crisis of 2009. With instability across the region in Iraq andLebanon, Jordan is emerging as the "business capital of the Levant" and the "the next Beirut". Jordan's economy has been growing at an annual rate of 7% for a decade.
Jordan has more free trade agreements than any other Arab country. Jordan has FTA's with the United States, Canada, Singapore, Malaysia, the European Union, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, Algeria, and Syria. More FTA's are planned with Iraq, the Palestinian Authority, the GCC, Lebanon, and Pakistan. Jordan is a member of the Greater Arab Free Trade Agreement, the Euro-Mediterranean free trade agreement, and theAgadir Agreement. Increased investment and exports are the main sources of Jordan's growth. Continued close integration into the European Union and GCC markets will reap vast economic rewards for the Kingdom in the coming years.
The main obstacles to Jordan's economy is scarce water supplies, complete reliance on oil imports for energy, and regional instability.
Rapid privatization of previously state-controlled industries and liberalization of the economy is spurring unprecedented growth in Jordan's urban centers like Amman and especially Aqaba. Jordan has six special economic zones that attract significant amount of investment amounting in the billions: Aqaba, Mafraq, Ma'an, Ajloun, the Dead Sea, and Irbid. Jordan also has a plethora of industrial zones producing goods in thetextile, aerospace, defense, ICT, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic sectors.
King Abdullah has repeatedly emphasised that Jordan has a bright future and that it compares favourably with much of the region on key social and economic indicators. Even though inflation pushed its way up to the 13% mark in the first half of 2008, the shocks to the system are far less than in Egypt where inflation crept up to around 23%. Jordan’s economy has come under some pressure in 2007 and perhaps more so in 2008, primarily from global increases in oil and food prices that have affected the government budget and the current account balance. While Jordan is facing enormous economic pressures, it is managing to sustain good levels of GDP growth and foreign investment.
There are a number of sectors that have performed well in 2007, including minerals, pharmaceuticals and tourism. Light industry has to face stronger competition and rising energy costs. For the construction materials sector, Chinese goods benefiting from low labour costs and Persian Gulf products capitalising on low energy costs could make life difficult for many local producers of light industrial goods. However, Jordan’s free trade agreements, investment incentives and low transport costs for shipping to major markets are still drawing producers to the country. Steel and cement producers are not expected to face the same challenges as light industry and cement production is due to rise, with two additional plants under construction and likely to provide further export income. The government is also pushing ahead with the establishment of economic zones to attract new industry and services to less developed areas of the country where problems of unemployment and poverty are particularly acute. Persian Gulf economic growth should ensure more job opportunities for Jordanians in the Persian Gulf and help to support living standards for many Jordanian families.
However, its domestic developments will be the key to improving conditions. The government will push ahead with major projects such as the housing initiative, the economic zones, and attracting knowledge-intensive investments that require high-skilled labour and vocational programmes in the hope of creating more jobs and helping to counteract the impact of higher living costs, while at the same time hoping that global developments do not make its job even harder.
The Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United States[74] that went into effect in December 2001 will phase out duties on nearly all goods and services by 2010. The agreement also provides for more open markets in communications, construction, finance, health, transportation, and services, as well as strict application of international standards for the protection of intellectual property. In 1996, Jordan and the United States signed a civil aviation agreement that provides for open skies between the two countries, and a U.S.-Jordan treaty for the protection and encouragement of bilateral investment entered into force in 2003. Jordan has been a member of the World Trade Organization since 2000.[2]
Many Iraqi and Palestinian businesses maintain important offices in Jordan. Due to the instability in these two regions, many Iraqis and Palestinians work out of Jordan. With Jordan becoming known as the gateway to Iraq and the Palestinian territories and for its free trade policies, Amman and the Kingdom of Jordan as a whole has the potential to monopolize business and trade in the Levant.
In the 2000 Competitive Industrial Performance (CIP) Index, Jordan ranked as the third most industrialized economy in the Middle East and North Africa, behind Turkey and Kuwait. Jordan was in the upper bracket of nations scored by the CIP index. [75]
In the 2009 Global Trade Enabling Report, Jordan ranked 4th in the Arab World behind the UAE, Bahrain, and Qatar. The report analyzes the country's market access, the country's transport and communications infrastructure, border administration, and the business environment of the country[76] Textile and clothing exports from Jordan to the United States shot up 2,000 percent from 2000 to 2005, following introduction of the FTA. According to the National Labor Committee, a U.S.-based NGO (Non-Governmental Organization), Jordan has experienced sharp increases in sweatshop conditions in its export-oriented manufacturing sector.[77]


Jordanian exports in 2006
The proportion of skilled workers in Jordan is among the highest in the region[78]. The services sector dominates the Jordanian economy. Tourism is a rapidly growing industry in Jordan with revenues over one billion. Industries such as pharmaceuticals are emerging as very profitable products in Jordan. The Real Estate economy and construction sectors continue to flourish with mass amounts of investments pouring in from the Persian Gulf and Europe. Foreign Direct Investment is in the billions. The stock market capitalization of Jordan is worth nearly $40 billion.
Jordan is classified by the World Bank as a "lower middle income country." The per-capita GDP was approximately USD $5,100 for 2007 and 14.5% of the economically active population, on average, was unemployed in 2003. Education and literacy rates and measures of social well-being are very high compared to other countries with similar incomes. Jordan's population growth rate is high, but has declined in recent years, to approximately 2.8% currently. One of the most important factors in the government’s efforts to improve the well-being of its citizens is the macroeconomic stability that has been achieved since the 1990s. However, unemployment rates remain high, with the official figure standing at 12.5%, and the unofficial around 30%. Rates of price inflation are low, at 2.3% in 2003, and the currency has been stable with an exchange rate fixed to the U.S. dollar since 1995.
By 2003 onwards following the invasion and occupation of Iraq, Jordan lost its vital oil grants provided by the regime of Saddam Hussein. This, combined with soaring world oil prices resulted in an acceleration of inflation and further pressures a gradual undermining of real income. So far the government of Jordan has not found means to reduce dependence on oil (with the exception of gas imports from Egypt).
While pursuing economic reform and increased trade, Jordan's economy will continue to be vulnerable to external shocks and regional unrest. Without calm in the region, economic growth seems destined to stay below potential. On the positive side, however, there is huge potential in the solar energy falling on Jordan's deserts, not only for the generation of pollution-free electricity but also for such spin-offs as desalination of sea water (see Trans-Mediterranean Renewable Energy Cooperation (TREC)).
Jordan is pinning its hopes on tourism, future uranium and oil shale exports, trade, and ICT for future economic growth